We all know the story of the crucifiction of Jesus,
 but after reading this I am sure your eyes as well
 as your heart will be opened. This goes into great
 detail as to what Christ endured for us. It is
 lengthly, but definately worth reading.
 
 
A Physician Testifies About the Crucifixion
  
                           by Dr. C. Truman Davis
 
 About a decade ago, reading Jim Bishop's The Day Christ Died,
 I realized that I had for years
 taken the Crucifixion more or less for granted
 that I had grown callous to its horror by a too easy
 familiarity with the grim details and a too distant 
 friendship with our Lord. It finally occurred to me
 that, though a physician, I didn't even know the actual
 immediate cause of death. The Gospel writers
 don't help us much on this point, because crucifixion
 and scourging were so common during their
 lifetime that they apparently considered a detailed 
 description unnecessary. So we have only the
 concise words of the Evangelists:
 "Pilate, having scourged Jesus, delivered Him
  to them to be crucified -- and they crucified Him."
 
 
 I have no competence to discuss the infinite psychic and 
 spiritual suffering of the Incarnate God
 atoning for the sins of fallen man. But it seemed to me
 that as a physician I might pursue the
 physiological and anatomical aspects of our Lord's 
 passonate some detail. What did the body of
 Jesus of Nazareth actually endure during those
 hours of torture? 
 
 This led me first to a study of the practice of 
 crucifixion itself; that is, torture and execution
  by fixation to a cross.
 I am indebted to many who have studied this subject
 in the past, and especially to a
 contemporary colleague, Dr. Pierre Barbet, a French
  surgeon who has done exhaustive historical
 and experimental research and has written extensively
  on the subject. 
 
 Apparently, the first known practice of crucifixion 
 was by the Persians. Alexander and his generals
 brought it back to the Mediterranean world -- to
 Egypt and to Carthage. The Romans apparently
 learned the practice from the Carthaginians 
 and (as with almost everything the Romans did)rapidly
 developed a very high degree of efficiency and skill 
 at it. A number of Roman authors (Livy, Cicer,
 Tacitus) comment on crucifixion, and several 
 innovations, modifications, and variations are described
 in the ancient literature. 
 
 For instance, the upright portion of the cross (or stipes)
  could have the cross-arm (or patibulum)
 attached two or three feet below its top in what we
 commonly think of as the Latin cross. The most
 common form used in our Lord's day, however, was the
 Tau cross, shaped like our T. In this cross
 the patibulum was placed in a notch at the top of 
 the stipes. There is archeological evidence that it
 was on this type of cross that Jesus was crucified. 
 
 Without any historical or biblical proof, Medieval 
 and Renaissance painters have given us our picture
 of Christ carrying the entire cross. But the upright
 post, or stipes, was generally fixed permanently in
 the ground at the site of execution and the condemned
 man was forced to carry the patibulum,
 weighing about 110 pounds, from the prison to the 
 place of execution. 
 
 Many of the painters and most of the sculptors of
  crucifixion, also show the nails through the palms.
 Historical Roman accounts and experimental work have
 established that the nails were driven
 between the small bones of the wrists (radial and ulna)
 and not through the palms. Nails driven
 through the palms will strip out between the fingers 
 when made to support the weight of the human
 body. The misconception may have come about through 
 a misunderstanding of Jesus' words to
 Thomas, "Observe my hands." Anatomists, both
 modern and ancient, have always considered the
 wrist as part of the hand. 
 
 A titulus, or small sign, stating the victim's
 crime was usually placed on a staff, carried at
 the front of the procession from the prison,
  and later nailed to the cross so that it extended
  above the head. This sign with its staff nailed to the top 
 of the cross would have given it somewhat the
  characteristic form of the Latin cross. 
 
 
 But, of course, the physical passion of the Christ 
 began in Gethsemane. Of the many aspects of this
 initial suffering, the one of greatest physiological
 interest is the bloody sweat. It is interesting that St.
 Luke, the physician, is the only one to mention this.
 He says, "And being in Agony, He prayed the
 longer. And His sweat became as drops of blood,
 trickling down upon the ground." 
 
 Every ruse (trick) imaginable has been used by modern 
 scholars to explain away this description,
 apparently under the mistaken impression that this just
 doesn't happen. A great deal of effort could
 have been saved had the doubters consulted the medical
 literature. Though very rare, the phenomenon of
 Hematidrosis, or bloody sweat, is well documented.
  Under great emotional stress of the kind our Lord suffered,
 tiny capillaries in the sweat glands can break,
 thus mixing blood with sweat. This process might
 well have produced marked weakness and possible shock. 
 
 After the arrest in the middle of the night, Jesus was 
 next brought before the Sanhedrin and Caiphus,
 the High Priest; it is here that the first physical
 trauma was inflicted. A soldier struck Jesus across the
 face for remaining silent when questioned by Caiphus. 
 The palace guards then blind-folded Him and
 mockingly taunted Him to identify them as they each
 passed by, spat upon Him, and struck Him in
 the face. 
 In the early morning, battered and bruised, dehydrated,
 and exhausted from a sleepless night, Jesus
 is taken across the Praetorium of the Fortress Antonia,
  the seat of government of the Procurator of
 Judea, Pontius Pilate. You are, of course, familiar
  with Pilate's action in attempting to pass
 responsibility to Herod Antipas, the Tetrarch of Judea.
  Jesus apparently suffered no physical
 mistreatment at the hands of Herod and was returned
 to Pilate. It was the, in response to the cries of
 the mob, that Pilate ordered Bar-Abbas released and 
 condemned Jesus to scourging and crucifixion.
 
 There is much disagreement among authorities about
 the unusual scourging as a prelude to
 crucifixion. Most Roman writers from this period do
 not associate the two. Many scholars believe
 that Pilate originally ordered Jesus scourged as
 his full punishment and that the death sentence by
 crucifixion came only in response to the taunt by 
 the mob that the Procurator was not properly
 defending Caesar against this pretender who allegedly 
 claimed to be the King of the Jews. 
 Preparations for the scourging were carried out when 
 the Prisoner was stripped of His clothing and
 His hands tied to a post above His head. It is doubtful 
 the Romans would have made any attempt to
 follow the Jewish law in this matter, but the 
 Jews had an ancient law prohibiting more than forty
 lashes. 
 
 The Roman legionnaire steps forward with the flagrum 
 (or flagellum) in his hand. This is a short whip
 consisting of several heavy, leather thongs with two
 small balls of lead attached near the ends of
 each. The heavy whip is brought down with full force 
 again and again across Jesus' shoulders, back,
 and legs. At first the thongs cut through the skin only.
 Then, as the blows continue, they cut deeper
 into the subcutaneous tissues, producing first an 
 oozing of blood from the capillaries and veins of the
 skin, and finally spurting arterial bleeding from vessels 
 in the underlying muscles. 
 
 The small balls of lead first produce large, deep bruises
  which are broken open by subsequent
 blows. Finally the skin of the back is hanging in long
  ribbons and the entire area is an unrecognizable
 mass of torn, bleeding tissue. When it is determined
 by the centurion in charge that the prisoner is
 near death, the beating is finally stopped. 
 
 The half-fainting Jesus is then untied and allowed to 
 slump to the stone pavement, wet with His own
 blood. The Roman soldiers see a great joke in this 
 provincial Jew claiming to be king. They throw a
 robe across His shoulders and place a stick in His
 hand for a scepter. They still need a crown to
 make their travesty complete. Flexible branches covered
 with long thorns (commonly used in bundles for firewood)
  are plaited into the shape of a crown
  and this is pressed into His scalp. Again
 there is copious bleeding, the scalp being one 
 of the most vascular areas of the body. 
 
 After mocking Him and striking Him across the face,
 the soldiers take the stick from His hand and
 strike Him across the head, driving the thorns deeper 
 into His scalp. Finally, they tire of their sadistic
 sport and the robe is torn from His back. Already 
 having adhered to the clots of blood and serum in
 the wounds, its removal causes excruciating pain 
 just as in the careless removal of a surgical
 bandage, and almost as though He were again being
 whipped the wounds once more begin to bleed.
 
 In deference to Jewish custom, the Romans return
  His garments. The heavy patibulum of the cross is
 tied across His shoulders, and the procession of
 the condemned Christ, two thieves, and the
 execution detail of Roman soldiers headed by a 
 centurion begins its slow journey along the Via
 Dolorosa. In spite of His efforts to walk erect,
  the weight of the heavy wooden beam, together with
 the shock produced by copious blood loss, is too much.
 He stumbles and falls. The rough wood of
 the beam gouges into the lacerated skin and 
 muscles of the shoulders. He tries to rise, but human
 muscles have been pushed beyond their endurance. 
 
 The centurion, anxious to get on with the crucifixion,
 selects a stalwart North African onlooker,
 Simon of Cyrene, to carry the cross. Jesus follows,
 still bleeding and sweating the cold, clammy
 sweat of shock, until the 650 yard journey from the 
 fortress Antonia to Golgotha is finally completed.
 
 Jesus is offered wine mixed with myrrh, a mild 
 analgesic mixture. He refuses to drink. Simon is
 ordered to place the patibulum on the ground and
 Jesus quickly thrown backward with His
 shoulders against the wood. The legionnaire feels for 
 the depression at the front of the wrist. He
 drives a heavy, square, wrought-iron nail through the
 wrist and deep into the wood. Quickly, he
 moves to the other side and repeats the action being 
 careful not to pull the arms to tightly, but to
 allow some flexion and movement. The patibulum is 
 then lifted in place at the top of the stipes and
 the titulus reading "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" 
 is nailed in place. 
 
 The left foot is now pressed backward against the
 right foot, and with both feet extended, toes
 down, a nail is driven through the arch of each, 
 leaving the knees moderately flexed. The Victim is
 now crucified. As He slowly sags down with more weight
 on the nails in the wrists excruciating pain
 shoots along the fingers and up the arms to explode 
 in the brain -- the nails in the wrists are putting
 pressure on the median nerves. As He pushes Himself 
 upward to avoid this stretching torment, He
 places His full weight on the nail through His feet.
 Again there is the searing agony of the nail tearing
 through the nerves between the metatarsal bones of the 
 feet. 
 
 At this point, as the arms fatigue, great waves of 
 cramps sweep over the muscles, knotting them in
 deep, relentless, throbbing pain. With these cramps 
 comes the inability to push Himself upward.
 Hanging by his arms, the pectoral muscles are paralyzed 
 and the intercostal muscles are unable to
 act. Air can be drawn into the lungs, but cannot be exhaled.
 Jesus fights to raise Himself in order to
 get even one short breath. Finally, carbon dioxide builds
 up in the lungs and in the blood stream and
 the cramps partially subside. Spasmodically, he is able 
 to push Himself upward to exhale and bring in
 the life-giving oxygen. It was undoubtedly during these
  periods that He uttered the seven short
 sentences recorded: 
 
 The first, looking down at the Roman soldiers throwing 
 dice for His seamless garment,
  "Father, forgive them for they know not what they do." 
  
 
 The second, to the penitent thief,
 "Today thou shalt be with me in Paradise." 
 
 The third, looking down at the terrified, grief-stricken 
 adolescent John -- the beloved Apostle -- he
 said,
 "Behold thy mother."
 Then, looking to His mother Mary,
 "Woman behold thy son." 
 
 The fourth cry is from the beginning of the 22nd Psalm,
 "My God, my God, why has thou forsaken
 me?" 
 
 Hours of limitless pain, cycles of twisting, joint-rending 
 cramps, intermittent partial asphyxiation,
 searing pain where tissue is torn from His lacerated 
 back as He moves up and down against the
 rough timber. Then another agony begins...A terrible 
 crushing pain deep in the chest as the
 pericardium slowly fills with serum and begins to compress 
 the heart. 
 
 One remembers again the 22nd Psalm, the 14th verse:
 "I am poured out like water, and all my bones
 are out of joint; my heart is like wax; it is 
 melted in the midst of my bowels." 
 
 It is now almost over. The loss of tissue fluids has 
 reached a critical level; the compressed heart is
 struggling to pump heavy, thick, sluggish blood into 
 the tissue; the tortured lungs are making a frantic
 effort to gasp in small gulps of air. The markedly 
 dehydrated tissues send their flood of stimuli to the
 brain. 
 
 Jesus gasps His fifth cry,
  "I thirst." 
 
 One remembers another verse from the prophetic 22nd Psalm
 "My strength is dried up like a
 potsherd; and my tongue cleaveth to my jaws;
  and thou has brought me into the dust of death." 
 
 A sponge soaked in posca, the cheap, sour wine which 
 is the staple drink of the Roman legionaries,
 is lifted to His lips. He apparently doesn't take any 
 of the liquid. The body of Jesus is now in
 extremes, and He can feel the chill of death creeping 
 through His tissues. This realization brings out
 His sixth words, possibly little more than a tortured 
 whisper,
 "It is finished." 
 
 His mission of atonement has completed. Finally He can 
 allow his body to die. 
 
 With one last surge of strength, he once again presses 
 His torn feet against the nail, straightens His
 legs, takes a deeper breath, and utters His seventh and
 last cry,
 "Father! Into thy hands I commit my spirit".
 
 
 The rest you know. In order that the Sabbath not be profaned,
 the Jews asked that the condemned
 men be dispatched and removed from the crosses. 
 The common method of ending a crucifixion was
 by crurifracture, the breaking of the bones of the legs.
 This prevented the victim from pushing himself
 upward; thus the tension could not be relieved from 
 the muscles of the chest and rapid suffocation
 occurred. The legs of the two thieves were broken,
  but when the soldiers came to Jesus they saw
 that this was unnecessary. 
 
 Apparently to make doubly sure of death, the legionnaire
 drove his lance through the fifth interspace
 between the ribs, upward through the pericardium and 
 into the heart. The 34th verse of the 19th
 chapter of the Gospel according to St. John reports:
 "And immediately there came out blood and
 water." That is, there was an escape of water fluid
 from the sac surrounding the heart, giving
 postmortem evidence that Our Lord died not the usual
 crucifixion death by suffocation, but of heart
 failure (a broken heart) due to shock and constriction
  of the heart by fluid in the pericardium. 
 
 Thus we have had our glimpse -- including the medical 
 evidence -- of that epitome of evil which man
 has exhibited toward Man and toward God. It has been a 
 terrible sight, and more than enough to
 leave us despondent and depressed. How grateful we can be
 that we have the great sequel in the
 infinite mercy of God toward man -- at once the miracle
 of the atonement (at one ment) and the
 expectation of the triumphant Easter morning.
 
 
 
 
 
Dr. C. Truman Davis is a nationally respected Opthalmologist,
 vice president of the
 American Association of Ophthalmology,
 and an active figure in the Christian schools
 movement. He is founder and president of the excellent
 Trinity Christian School in Mesa
 Arizona, and a trustee of Grove City College.
 
 
 
 This work is (c)copyrighted by The Review of the NEWS,
  April 14, 1976